The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The scale of buy-in represents a shift in world views and one of the first serious, guided attempts to bring climate change under control. The protocol has been subject to further amendments since its creation.
Source: unfccc.int
The Kyoto Protocol imposes challenging targets for the world in terms of reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on February 16th 2005 following the ratification of the Protocol by Russia in November 2004. If any member fails to meet their individual targets, there are potentially serious financial penalties.
Greenhouse gases seriously contribute to the acceleration of climate change. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen that are emitted during the combustion process cause acid rain which corrodes buildings, increases the acidity levels of lakes, rivers, and sea, while also being seriously damaging to human health.
For countries that import the majority of their energy requirements, this makes them vulnerable to supply issues and volatile energy prices on the world market. Due to rising fuel costs, opening of electricity and gas markets to competition, and climate change, the requirement to monitor and reduce energy consumption is thrown under the spotlight like never before.
The top three non-domestic building uses that consume the most energy in the UK (true of 2018) are as follows:
- Factories (34%)
- Other (15%)
- Offices (10%)
It is somewhat easy to assume that this is due to these building types existing in much higher numbers than other building types, but this is simply not true. There are 1,656,000 non-domestic buildings in the UK – the top three most common?
- Shops (29%)
- Offices (20%)
- Factories (14%)
From comparing the most common uses of non-domestic buildings with the biggest energy consumers by building type, it can be seen that energy demand will vary based on building type. This may seem just like common sense for some, but it paves the way for a little context.
Energy Consumption in Buildings
Before beginning this section, it is prudent to explain a term that will be used throughout. The “service sector” can be thought of to include both commercial service activities (such as banking, hotels, cinemas, retail outlets) and public services (such as universities, hospitals, and government departments).
Although it may seem like common sense, buildings are often the main point of energy consumption within the services sector. The balance being tipped mainly by certain municipal and civic facilities.
Energy End Use in Buildings
As you may imagine, the end use of energy in buildings varies with the type, function and occupancy of building.
To illustrate this, the energy use associated with two typical office blocks is contrasted below. One building is naturally ventilated with an open plan setup while the other is air-conditioned.
Although it is difficult to be able to formulate a statement that applies to all businesses and office settings, it is interesting to see how a slight operational difference can cause such a vast difference in energy end use.
| Energy End Use | Percentage of Total Energy Use |
| Fans, Pumps, Controls | 2% |
| Catering | 2% |
| Office Equipment | 12% |
| Lighting | 12% |
| Other | 2% |
| Cooling | 1% |
| Heating/Hot Water | 65% |
| Energy End Use | Percentage of Total Energy Use |
| Fans, Pumps, Controls | 16% |
| Catering | 1% |
| Office Equipment | 8% |
| Lighting | 14% |
| Other | 7% |
| Cooling | 8% |
| Heating/Hot Water | 46% |
Environmental Impact Of Energy Use In Buildings
Energy consumption in buildings (which will involve the use of fossil fuels) contributes to air pollution. This has further downstream impacts on public health and causing irreparable damage to the environment.
Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels cause global warming and ultimately climate change. This is not the only harmful emission though; others include oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which can cause acid rain.
Much of the UK’s electricity is still generated from fossil fuels. Because of the inefficiencies and losses resulting from generation and distribution, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are relatively high compared to other energy sources. The emissions resulting from electricity will change on a yearly basis – this is as a result of the changing fuel mix of electricity generation.
| Generation Source | Kg CO2 per KWh |
| Open Cycle Gas Turbine | 0.5 |
| Closed Cycle Gas Turbine | 0.5 |
| Oil | 0.65 |
| Coal | 0.9 |
| Nuclear | 0.005 |
| Pumped Storage | 0.02 |
| Non-Pumped Storage Hydro | 0.005 |
| Wind Onshore | 0.00464 |
| Wind Offshore | 0.00525 |
| Solar | 0.058 |
Energy Costs In Buildings
Energy costs are considered to be a growing cost and are controllable through proper energy management and strategy. Any cost savings from energy saving tactics can be thought of to add directly to profits, if already running a profitable business. They require no additional turnover, service provision or increase in customer numbers. This creates an incredible financial opportunity for businesses take advantage of, should they want to.
Design Opportunities In Buildings
Opportunities for New Buildings
When building a new building, it allows for complete creative freedom and a building entirely of your designs. This represents the best opportunity to take advantage of any benefits resulting from design features.
- Optimise location and orientation of site features
- Optimise the layout, form and fabrics used to moderate energy needs
- Reduce heat demand by using insulation and ensuring seals are airtight
- Minimise cooling needs through the use of optimised fabrics
- Integrate natural ventilation
- Implement renewable energy sources
- Ensure requirements of occupants are met
It may seem like just common sense, but a well-designed and energy efficient building using the form and fabric of the construction to allow plenty of daylight and natural ventilation, will provide a more productive workplace than any heavily serviced conventional alternative. This is further enhanced by providing staff with the right combination of automatic systems, timed systems, and individual control over the local environment.
Opportunities in Existing Buildings
For existing buildings, there are not so many opportunities. The scope for efficiency improvements is limited. Opportunities present themselves more in the form of cost-effective investment, either as stand-alone measures or as part of other replacement or refurbishment plans.
- Lighting systems can be upgraded to more efficient lamps, luminaires and controls. There is a balance to be found in replacing electrical equipment between upgrading to more modern efficiency standards, and wasteful consumerism.
- Hot water can often be provided in more efficient ways than initial historical designs. Boilers at the end of their life can be replaced with more efficient alternatives.
- Properly designed controls for building services should be integral to all new and upgrade building projects.
- All IT and office equipment should be chosen with its energy performance in mind, alongside other criteria.
- Pumps and fans can often be powered by more efficient motors with the use of variable-speed drives.
- Heat pumps and combined heat and power (CHP) systems under certain conditions can be implemented with great success.